Ragga
Ragga developed the evolution of Reggae, reemphasising the close relationship of the DJ and MC to Sound systems.Ragga shared many of the same characteristics of Dancehall, including a heavy reliance on ‘versioning, are present if not prominent – the one essential difference is that digital instrumentation is used, heralding a whole new wave of performers eager to ride the most commercial form that Reggae had yet taken. Indeed, it seems to distill and crystallise the very process and route by and through which Reggae has defined and re-invented itself. Elements of the “new style” can be seen within the dynamics of many previous Sly and Robbie releases in particular, and was even pre-figured in the “harder” sounds exhibited by the Roots Radics, whilst the evermore accessible and affordable technology enabled other artists to join the digital revolution, Paul Blake and the Blood Fire Posse’s 1984 release ‘Rub A Dub Soldier’ being a good early example of this phenomenon. However, to portray the ragga phenomenon as a unified or coherent force would be to miss the underlying complexity and inherent plasticity of the form; during this time, many innovative experiments surfaced in the sounds and rhythms employed by the producers, singers and deejays of the day. Sly Dunbar’s 1991 hit for Pliers, ‘Bam Bam’, featured an Indian drum sample (and which rhythm, in turn, was used by this artist with his associate Chaka Demus for their joint follow-up massive international hit ‘Murder She Wrote’). This example neatly illustrates the continuing inventiveness of Jamaican Reggae alongside its continual renewal through versioning, taking the old, the established and re-interpreting it, re-shaping it into something new. The finest exponent of this particular methodology, King Jammy, was the producer responsible for the enormously influential and massively sampled Wayne Smith hit ‘Under Mi Sleng Teng’, which, more than any other record, helped define the moment that Dancehall entered the modern era and Ragga came of age. He himself produced more than ten versions of this classic rhythm by different singers, enough to justify a whole album of material. Again, the producer’s pre-eminence, pre-dominance and prescience are finely illustrated, the album ‘Sleng Teng Extravaganza’ introducing the soon to be commonplace phenomenon of the single rhythm album. Other producers of distinction who have followed his lead include Philip “Fatis” Burrell, Dave “Rude Boy” Kelly and, of course, the ubiquitous Sly and Robbie. Jammy’s rhythm subsequently “mutated” into several very close relations - his ‘Agony’ rhythm underpinning not only Admiral Bailey’s ‘Big Belly Man’ but also Major Worries’ ‘Me No Response’, whilst King Tubby’s ‘Tempo’ rhythm provided the basis for Nitty Gritty’s ‘Hog Ina Me Minty’.Meanwhile, King Jammy was consolidating his considerable contribution to the development of Dancehall by being at the forefront of the digital revolution too; his Brentford Road studios churned out a massive volume of albums and singles, ably aided and abetted by some of the best musicians available, including guitarist Jackie Mittoo; saxophonists Roland Alphonso and Dean Frazer; bassist Wycliffe “Steely” Johnson; arrangers and songwriters, like Mikey Bennett and Leroy Sibbles; engineers, such as Sylvan Morris; and mixers, notably Bobby “Digital” Dixon – and it was the last-named in particular who was, along with Steely and Clevie, destined to trouble Jammy’s position as number one producer.
Of course, although the digital revolution was pervasive and contributed enormously to a plethora of releases utilising the new technology, the more established process of using the original rhythm and overdubbing the vocal track was still a strong and vibrant element. Tenor Saw’s classic re-working of the Winston Riley produced ‘Stalag 17’ instrumental, which itself became the basis for Buju Banton’s celebrated re-working of the track – other artists including Michael Prophet, Sugar Minott and General Echo (‘Arleen’) have also versioned the instrumental, proving how popular particular rhythms can be and how constant a source of inspiration (or pirating, dependent on viewpoint) they continue to be for the Dancehall and Ragga contingents.
King Jammy was especially active during this era in not only producing for the established stars such as Alton Ellis and Delroy Wilson, Dennis Brown and Gregory Isaacs and even the rootsy Wailing Souls (all of whom seemed to benefit from the Jammy treatment) but also in providing a solid platform to expose the talents of a wealth of younger performers, including the tragically destined Nitty Gritty and Tenor Saw. Indeed, Jammy’s influence can be seen in hits by Pinchers, Thriller U, Sanchez and Leroy Gibbons, although his biggest and best known performers from the Dancehall days, Cocoa Tea and Frankie Paul, continued to enjoy considerable commercial success and critical acclaim. However, King Jammy did not have it all his own way and there were many challengers to his self-bestowed crown. Juggling for position were the aforementioned Winston Riley and King Tubby, both of whom continued to release fine material and helped to break new artists. Producer Riley’s first digital release, ‘Boops’ by the deejay Super Cat, employed the classic Marcia Griffiths’ Rocksteady rhythm ‘Feel Like Jumping’, and was followed by further Riley-produced Michael Prophet and Junie Ranks tracks which initiated an instant avalanche of imitators on the theme of “sugar daddies”, including the singers Sugar Minott, and, perhaps surprisingly, Bunny Wailer and many deejays including Lone Ranger and Papa San. Red Dragon (formerly Redman) was another deejay who had come through the sound system route to score significant hits with this producer including “Hol A Fresh,’ with Papa San and Lady G’s ‘Legal Rights’ providing yet more quality deejay offerings. King Tubby had, by 1985, established the Firehouse, Waterhouse and Taurus labels through which he released seminal material from singers Anthony “Red” Rose (‘Tempo’) and Lloyd Hemmings (‘Rude Boy’); an inspired (though sadly posthumous) album from the evergreen Gregory Isaacs, ‘Warning’; as well as many other releases for lesser known artists such as Johnnie Clarke and Cornell Campbell which did not seem to suit the digital format so well, besides rather more successful offerings including King Kong’s ‘Aids’ and Courtney Melody’s ‘Ninja Mi Ninja’.
Throughout the preceding paragraph, an underlying reference to the continuing strong tradition of sound system clashes is implied by the strong representation of deejays and, indeed, it is perhaps appropriate that the most serious challenge, albeit short-lived, to the monarch’s increasingly threatened crown was made by another sound system operator. Hugh “Redman” James employed the same rhythm section (Steely and Clevie) as had Jammy and scored massively in 1988 with three hits by little-known artists; Conroy Smith’s ‘Dangerous’, Carl Meek’s ‘Wey Dem Fa’ and Admiral Tibet’s ‘New Tactics’. Further artists released that year included Courtney Melody, Clement Irie, Frankie Paul and a revitalised John Holt although, strangely, such a strong beginning has not been sustained.
The next significant development in the evolution of Ragga mirrored it’s original genesis in 1985. Augustus “Gussie” Clarke had opened his own studio, Music Works, in 1987, fast becoming a firm favourite with other producers and attracting major stars, such as Gregory Isaacs; his1988 single, ‘Rumours’, was to become the benchmark by which further releases were judged, incorporating as it did both the rootsy feel with the modern sound. So successful was this synthesis that Gussie was encouraged to assemble a talented team of three professional songwriters, including Mikey Bennett. Their efforts were rewarded with success for a diverse roster of artists, including the UK-based Lovers Rock stylists Peter Hunningale and Deborahe Glasgow, deejays such as Cutty Ranks and Papa San, as well as well-established artists like Dennis Brown, the Mighty Diamonds and the rejuvenated Gregory Isaacs. A further refinement, and in retrospect a smart marketing move, was Clarke’s pairing of artists; Shabba was coupled with both Krystal and J.C. Lodge and scored immediate success (at least artistically), whilst the 1993 Freddie McGregor & Snagga Puss single, ‘This Carry Go Bring Come’, disappointingly for the producer did not fare so well, although he must have derived some small comfort from the solo Freddie McGregor transnational hit, ‘Rumours’ (which, interestingly, brings us round again to where it started off). His Music Works studio was also utilised heavily by arranger Mikey Bennett and Patrick Lindsay, who in 1990 established their Two Friends label, releasing material largely by established stars with whom they had previously worked, such as Gregory Isaacs, Cocoa Tea and Shabba Ranks.
Perhaps the best training
ground for a would-be producer was King Jammy’s and it should come
as no surprise that his protégés should show ambition. Engineer
Bobby Digital had gained invaluable experience as Jammy’s chief engineer
and had, just as importantly, established good working relations with
the foremost rhythm duo of Steely and Clevie. In addition, he had nurtured
the talents of both Cocoa Tea and the then little-known deejay known as
Shabba Ranks. His mentorship paid off in 1988 with the formation of his
Digital B label, Shabba and Cocoa both releasing a version of Junior Byles’
rhythm ‘Fade Away’ (‘Peanie Peanie’ and ‘Lonesome
Side’ respectively). He consolidated these early releases with further
Shabba tracks including ‘Hot Like Fire’ and ‘Just Reality’
and Cocoa releases including ‘Love Me’ and ‘Ruling Cowboy’,
as well as tracks featuring both artists. Having been instrumental in
the establishment of the youthful Shabba Ranks, Clarke continued his avuncular
role with the sadly doomed Garnett Silk, whilst also producing Sanchez,
Pinchers and Wayne Wonder, amongst others, and being called into service
by the elder statesmen of Reggae such as Gregory Isaacs and Leroy Sibbles.
His easy rapport with deejays has yielded strong selling singles by the
likes of Red Dragon, Admiral Bailey and Ninjaman. More recently, and significantly
for the artists “taken under his wing”, his production skills
have helped launch the careers of many aspiring talents who may not have
otherwise reached the attention of an international audience but who are
now enjoying considerable success; amongst these are Beenie Man, Lieutenant
Stitchie, Cobra, Tony Rebel and Terror Fabulous.
Wycliffe “Steely” Johnson and Cleveland “Clevie” Browne
(aka Steely and Clevie) had built most of Jammy’s Dancehall and Ragga
rhythms and those of most of his competitors; the increasing usage of
digital techniques meant that, effectively, the two session men could
create a whole rhythm track complete with instrumentation without any
other musicians. By establishing their Steely and Clevie label, they simultaneously
appealed both to committed deejays like Cutty Ranks (‘Retreat’)
and Ninjaman (‘Murder Dem’) and also to established singers
like Freddie McGregor and Gregory Isaacs. If anyone had any doubts, their
first storming release would forever dispel them; adopting the technique
of the former Technique, Winston Riley (and there are further interesting
parallels in both the approach and the crossover success of these musician
/ producers), they paired up the unlikely but wonderfully brilliant duo
of the emergent singer Leroy Gibbons with the veteran Dillinger for the
finely crafted ‘Bruk Camera’ which employed Freddy McKay’s
rhythm ‘Picture On The Wall’, consolidating their reputation
and confirming their status in the eyes of the wider Reggae community.
Their interest in, and knowledge of, the roots of Reggae inspired the
Pocomania influenced ‘Pocoman Jam’ by Gregory Peck; this rhythm
track was further utilised by Cutty Ranks for the huge ‘Ugly Girl
Retreat’, demonstrating yet again that you can’t beat a good
riddim, although you can ride it to death. Although it did not presage
a Pocomania revival, this example is useful in illustrating how Jamaican
producers are adept at dipping into the past, juxtaposing these musical
elements through technology, fusing them through the present and shaping
the musical potential and direction the music itself takes. For example,
Frankie Paul’s version of ‘Cassandra’ (originally by Dennis
Brown) was mixed with the Sleng Teng rhythm alongside lyrics from a previous
release of his, ‘Westbound Train’, the whole managing to make
musical sense.
Gussie Clarke’s Music Works studio was established in the same year,
1987, as another ambitious and experienced producer, Donovan Germain,
set up his Penthouse label in Kingston. Germain had already experienced
some success through his previous Revolutionary Sounds label, including
Sugar Minott with the international hit ‘Got A Good Thing Going’.
His productions, in common with other top Jamaican producers, had benefited
considerably through a small team of highly accomplished session men (these
musicians were, respectively, the Firehouse Crew, Mafia & Fluxy and
the ubiquitous Steely & Clevie) providing the aural against which
the artist is framed along with a willingness to exploit the technology
(being amongst the first of the Jamaican producers to see the potential
of building rhythm tracks completely around samples).
His production talents gave a new lease of life to respected vocalists
like Marcia Griffiths and Beres Hammond (providing Germain with 1990’s
best seller ‘Tempted To Touch’ and continuing up to the present
with domestic hits such as ‘My Wish’ and ‘Is It A Sign’),
and they were also well suited to the up and coming deejays like Cutty
Ranks, Tony Rebel and Cobra. Cutty, in fact, was a factor in both these
vocalists’ rehabilitation, cutting ‘Half Idiot’ and ‘Really
Together’ with the former and ‘Love Mi Hafi Get’ with the
latter (a re-working of the John Holt rhythm ‘A Love I Can Feel’,
previously covered to such effect by Beres Hammond’s 1990 monster),
although solo singles such as ‘Russia & America’ showcase
the gravel-voiced deejay to fine effect. Cutty’s regular recording
partner was the aptly named Tony Rebel, a conscious deejay in the mould
of his ill-fated friend Garnett Silk. Cobra represented serious competition
in the deejay stakes (and a serious contrast in style, suggested by the
title of his 1991 album, ‘Bad Boy Talk’), by scoring three successive
hits for Germain. To this tripartite must be added a whole supporting
cast of deejays eager to benefit from the producer’s sure touch,
including Lady Saw, Beenie Man, Capleton, Lieutenant Stitchie and even
the seemingly tireless Frankie Paul (it would probably be easier to list
the producers or labels he didn’t cut tracks for)! It must be stated
that this producer inspired uncommon loyalty and also seemed to be able
to conjure his artists’ best performances on record, although none
of them has sustained quite the same consistent commercial success as
Buju Banton has enjoyed.
Buju Banton had enjoyed two hits in 1991, consolidating these with further solo and duo releases in 1992 and quickly established himself in partnership with the engineer Dave Kelly, which was to prove immediately fruitful with the release of ‘Big It Up’ followed by ‘Batty Rider’. Buju also released more conscious material such as ‘How Massa God World A Run’; however, it was the controversial ‘Boom Bye Bye’ with it’s upfront and homophobic lyrics, which put his career on hold for a short while until inspired to release the 1993 track ‘Murderer’ in response to the brutal murder of his close friend Pan Head (which also inspired Buju’s main rival, Beenie Man, to make 1994’s ‘No Mama No Cry). Capable of Dancehall rockers such as ‘Champion’, light-hearted releases like 1994’s ‘Operation Willy’ (although its’ subject, AIDS, was of course not), the militant ‘Rampage’ from the same year, Buju nevertheless displays a conscious sensibility evidenced by his 1995 album ‘’Til Shiloh’ – shared by the previously cited Tony Rebel and Garnett Silk and also displayed by relative newcomers Prezident Brown, Jesse Jender, Sizzla, Anthony B, Lady G (in direct contrast to the similarly-named but profane performer Lady Saw) and relative veteran Louie Culture. These performers had been pre-dated in the ‘80s by both Admiral Tibet and Yami Bolo; these artists had exerted considerable influence on “the nineties generation” with a ‘cultural’ perspective, in particular Luciano and Everton Blender, although there are a host of other and less well-known artists waiting their turn in the wings. As always, the complete truth is not such a happy blend of division, for many artists did not evidence a strictly ‘cultural’ or necessarily ‘slack’ viewpoint, seeming capable of either depending on subject. What was important was the way in which the traditions of Reggae were kept alive whilst being infused with the new digitally produced rhythms – and this process can be demonstrated clearly through the (largely separate) careers of two former members of Black Uhuru. Michael Rose has appeared on many labels since voicing Sly & Robbie’s 1991 release ‘Bad Boys’ and also exemplifies the “dread” perspective shared by the other lead singer of the band, Junior Reid. His hits included ‘One Blood’ and ‘All Fruits Ripe’; after several brief but productive collaborations with musicians outside the Reggae world (scoring with Coldcut and Soupdragons in 1988 and 1990), the musician has followed the well-traveled route to become a producer, of not only his own releases but also other singers and deejays, notably Gregory Isaacs and Ninjaman.
Other prominent deejays of the ragga era include Bounty Killer, Beenie
Man, Capleton, Chaka Demus & Pliers.